Increased galanin-galanin receptor 1 signaling, inflammation, and insulin resistance are associated with affective symptoms and chronic fatigue syndrome due to Long COVID

Background Long COVID (LC) patients frequently suffer from neuropsychiatric symptoms, including depression, anxiety, and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), relabeled as the physio-affective phenome of LC. Activated immune-inflammatory pathways and insulin resistance key play a role in these physio-affective symptoms due to LC.

Aims To examine the associations between the Hamilton Depression (HAMD), Hamilton Anxiety (HAMA) and Fibro-Fatigue (FF) Rating Scale scores and serum C-reactive protein (CRP), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), galanin-galanin receptor 1 (GAL-GALR1) signaling, insulin resistance, insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI1), and damage biomarkers such as S100B and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) in 90 subjects 3-6 months after acute SARS-CoV-2 infection.